In this series, we first took a closer look at the hydrogen (H₂) color spectrum and then explored the regional factors that determine the most viable production pathways. We have established how to produce low-carbon hydrogen, and which approach is most suitable depending on environmental conditions, such as feedstock availability and energy costs. Yet, producing hydrogen is only the first step in a much larger value chain.
Once a molecule of hydrogen is created, it begins a complex journey to the end-user. The "midstream" stage is technically challenging, contributing significant costs to the entire value chain. It includes hydrogen packing, transportation, and storage. It is essential for any organization looking to build a realistic and profitable hydrogen project to understand each stage, as they significantly impact the final "delivered" cost of hydrogen.
"Packaging" hydrogen for transport: Different paths to go
Hydrogen is the lightest element in the universe, meaning it has a very low density in its natural gaseous state. To transport it economically, it must be "packaged" to increase its energy density, reducing the transportation costs. There are different strategies for this:
Liquefied Hydrogen (LH₂)
By cooling hydrogen to a cryogenic -253°C (-423°F), it turns into a liquid. This significantly increases its density – by roughly a factor of approx. 790, making it an effective way to transport large volumes over long distances, particularly by sea.
Liquefying hydrogen at scale demands relatively little power - around 8 to 10 kWh per kilogram of hydrogen. However, the development of large-scale hydrogen liquefaction plants and the necessary LH2 storage infrastructure at export and import terminals is still far from mature.
Additionally, LH2 carriers required for transporting larger quantities of LH2 currently have a rather low technology readiness level. Advancements in LH₂ tank technology, which determine insulation quality, will influence hydrogen costs, as the boil-off gas (BOG) losses add to the delivered price at import terminals. The goal will be to restrict the boil-off gas to the amount required for powering the LH₂ carriers’ propulsion and onboard energy systems, avoiding the need to flare excess hydrogen.
Once LH2 shipping technologies mature, the high efficiency of this pathway could make it a highly attractive option for long-distance hydrogen transport.
Compressed Gaseous Hydrogen (CGH2)
When pipeline access near the hydrogen consumer is unavailable, a practical solution for short-distance transport is to compress hydrogen gas to high pressures (200–700 bar) in high-pressure tubes housed in 20- or 40-foot containers or on dedicated trailers. With 700-bar trailers, hydrogen can be fed to a great extend to end-users when regulations allow transportation at this pressure level without installing compression equipment at their facilities.
The depreciation of the high costs associated with high-pressure vessels or containers must be factored in throughout their round trip, including when hydrogen is filled into them, stored inside, and dispensed from the container. During a round trip, the depreciation can easily amount to between €0.20 and €0.40 per kg of hydrogen per day, indicating that a long round trip duration makes CGH2 container transport and storage per kg of hydrogen rather uncompetitive.
| GH2 container/trailer transport costs | ||
|---|---|---|
| Round trip duration (days) | H2 cost for container/trailer depreciation per kg H2 min (EUR) | H2 cost for container/trailer depreciation per kg H2 max (EUR) |
| 1 | 0.2 | 0.4 |
| 2 | 0.4 | 0.8 |
| 3 | 0.6 | 1.2 |
| 4 | 0.8 | 1.6 |
| 5 | 1 | 2 |
| 6 | 1.2 | 2.4 |
| 7 | 1.4 | 2.8 |
| 8 | 1.6 | 3.2 |
| 9 | 1.8 | 3.6 |
| 10 | 2 | 4 |
Several project developers have already realized that long-distance container transport with extended round trips is not a feasible solution.
Hydrogen pipeline feed and transport
Hydrogen pipelines can be utilized if they are located near both hydrogen production and consumption sites. Compressed to the pipeline pressure, the hydrogen can flow from the pipeline injection point to the consumer. When hydrogen is produced by pressurized electrolyzers located close to consumers, compressors may not even be required to move the molecules from production to consumption.
The estimated cost of transporting hydrogen via pipeline is projected to range from €0.07 to €0.23 per kilogram per 1 000 km. This price variability is determined by a variety of pipeline related parameters such as:
- Pipeline diameter and material: Larger diameters reduce cost per kg of hydrogen, but increase capital investment.
- Hydrogen demand: Higher throughput lowers the levelized cost.
- Compressor stations: Required for long distances, adding to both capital and operational costs.
- Pipeline pressure and terrain: Affect construction complexity and energy use.
- Repurposing vs. new build: Repurposing existing natural gas pipelines can reduce costs but may require significant upgrades due to hydrogen embrittlement and leakage risks.
Hydrogen carriers
To achieve easier transport, the methods described below involve chemically bonding hydrogen to a stable liquid molecule. The three leading carriers are:
Ammonia (NH₃)
Hydrogen is combined with nitrogen from air separation units in a Haber-Bosch ammonia production plant, and the resulting ammonia can be transported as a liquid under moderate pressure.
The main advantage of this hydrogen transportation route is that ammonia production processes, along with the infrastructure for large-scale storage and shipping, are already well-established and partially in place. Although utilizing ammonia as a hydrogen carrier is one of the most inefficient ways to transport hydrogen - the efficiency of the process ranges at <25%, the maturity of the most critical elements of this path makes this the solution of choice for today's projects.
| Ammonia packaging | kWh per kg H2 |
|---|---|
| Electrolysis | 55 |
| Air separation unit (N2) | 0.66 |
| Ammonia (Haber Bosch) production plant | 63 |
| Ammonia cracker (conversion back to hydrogen) | 14 |
| Total energy demand | 132 |
| Round trip efficiency | 25% |
Table: Energy demand and efficiency (compared to the energy content of hydrogen (33kWh/kg (lower heat value – LHV)) for ammonia as a hydrogen packing path
Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carriers (LOHC)
Hydrogen is absorbed to a stable organic liquid – LOHC (e.g. covalent bonding to Benzyltoluene).
"Hydrogenation" takes place at the production site under elevated temperatures, consuming about 9 kWh of energy. Later, hydrogen is released from the LOHC at the point of use through desorption, which requires an additional ~10 kWh of energy.
LOHC can be transported over long distances under normal atmospheric conditions using standard product tankers and road tanker trucks, offering a high degree of safety. In addition to the LOHC hydrogenation equipment at the location of hydrogen production and the hydrogen desorption equipment at the point of hydrogen consumption tank, infrastructure for both states of LOHC, with and without the hydrogen bonded to the LOHC, must be provided to enable a circular logistic of the liquid hydrogen carrier.
| LOHC packaging | kWh per kg H2 |
|---|---|
| Electrolysis | 55 |
| LOHC hydrogenation | 9 |
| LOHC de-hydrogenation | 10 |
| Total energy demand | 74 |
| Round trip efficiency | 45% |
Table: Energy demand and efficiency (compared to the energy content of hydrogen (33kWh/kg (lower heat value - LHV)) for LOHC as a hydrogen packaging path
Metals as energy vectors
Metals can also be used to store or transport larger quantities of energy, even in the absence of hydrogen. The energy storage mechanism in that case is the production of metals like aluminium or iron from their oxides.
When these metals are exposed to water (H2O) they reduce the water to metal oxide (AL2O3 or FE3O4) releasing hydrogen.
While the iron oxidation reaction is endothermic, the aluminium oxidation reaction, once ignited, is exothermic, generating heat at very high temperatures (around 1000 °C), which can be recovered for use in industrial processes.
Aluminium: 2Al + 3H2O → Al2O3 + 3H2
| Aluminium with max. heat recovery | kWh per kg H2 | Aluminium w/o heat recovery | kWh per kg H2 |
|---|---|---|---|
| Aluminium oxyde electrolysis | 124 | Aluminium oxide electrolysis | 124 |
| Hydrogen generation (steam reduction) heat recovery 100% | -38 | Hydrogen generation (steam reduction) no heat recovery | 0 |
| Total energy demand | 86 | Total energy demand | 124 |
| Round trip efficiency | 38% | Round trip efficiency | 27% |
Table: Energy demand and efficiency (compared to the energy content of hydrogen (33kWh /kg (lower heat value - LHV)) for aluminum as a hydrogen packaging path
Below is an overview of process efficiencies and cost drivers, primarily influenced by the power consumption required for these processes.
Choosing the right mode for packaging and transport
The need to transport hydrogen arises mainly from two factors:
- Meeting the energy import needs of regions unable to satisfy demand through domestic production and storage.
- Hydrogen production can be more cost-effective in remote exporting regions with lower energy prices, which also reduces packaging and transportation costs compared to domestically produced and stored hydrogen.
The distance of hydrogen transport and the environmental factors like energy costs, feedstock and infrastructure availability predefine the chosen hydrogen production and packaging method and the mode of hydrogen transport from the production hub to the point of use.
The infographic below outlines the decision-making process for selecting the optimal hydrogen packaging and transport method:
Alternative energy transport vectors: Synthetic Hydrocarbons (e.g. methane)
Synthetic Hydrocarbons can be used as an energy supply vector for storage and the transportation of energy.
Synthetic Hydrocarbons used as an energy carrier will not be converted back into hydrogen. Therefore, a direct comparison with other value chains is of limited relevance, as these hydrocarbons can be utilized directly as low-carbon feedstock in the chemical and petrochemical industries or as fuel. That said, examining the issue from another angle may provide useful insights.
One of the simplest hydrocarbons - synthetic methane, is synthesized through the Sabatier process: CO2 + 4H2 → CH4 + 2H2O.
Synthetic methane can be transported through existing natural gas infrastructure: it can be injected into pipelines, stored in underground caverns, or liquefied at –163 °C for shipment via LNG tankers and trailers.
However, hydrocarbons - including methanol and synthetic kerosene - used as energy carriers share a common challenge. In addition to requiring green hydrogen, these energy carriers also need carbon dioxide (CO2) sourced in compliance with emission regulations, which means securing sufficient biogenic CO2 or CO2 obtained through direct air capture (DAC) technology.
Both supply chains of CO2 within this path are critical.
- Biogenic CO2 supply challenges: To scale up synthetic hydrocarbon production, large quantities of biogenic CO2 must be available near the production facility or transported there. A scarce or fragmented biogenic CO2 supply chain could significantly limit the expansion of synthetic hydrocarbon plants.
- Direct air capture CO2 supply challenges: Because atmospheric CO2 concentration is relatively low (~420 ppm), capturing these molecules requires significant capital and operational expenditure. With current technology, direct air capture costs around €800–900 per ton of CO2, with projections to decrease to €150–350 per ton as the technology matures and scales.
The table below compares the cost of synthetic methane with that of green hydrogen, factoring in CO2 sourced from biogenic sources and direct air capture.
| Methane costs comparison at production site | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Production | Feedstock costs [0.5 kg H2 & 2.74 kg CO2 per kg CH4] | Total feed stock costs [€ per kg CH4] | Plant CAPEX/OPEX 1.0-2.5 [€ per kg CH4] | Total costs € per kg methane | Energy costs (LHV) [€/kWh] |
| Synmethane (Biogenic CO2 at €30/t) | H2: ~€1.23/kg CH4 CO2: ~€0.08/kg CH4 | 1.31 | ~2 | 3.31 | 0.24 |
| Synmethane (DAC CO2 at €800/t) | H2: ~€1.23/kg CH4 CO2: ~€2.19/kg CH4 | 3.42 | ~2 | 5.42 | 0.39 |
| Fossil methane imported to EU (TTF 10/2025) | €31.44 per megawatt hour (MWh) | / | / | 1.75 | 0.13 |
The table above highlights the range of synthetic methane cost scenarios, excluding transportation to the EU.
Before transport via pipeline or LNG tanker, the cost of synthetic methane is estimated to range between:
- ~190 % of TTF tradable natural gas (biogenic CO2 (€30 per ton))
- ~300% of TTF tradable natural gas (DAC CO2 (€800 per ton))
The Burckhardt Compression perspective
Following the journey of a hydrogen molecule from production to end-use shows us that the midstream journey is a complex network of interconnected technologies. Building this physical backbone to be both reliable and economical is one of the defining challenges of the hydrogen economy.
Within this complexity, compression technology plays a pivotal role — from enabling high-pressure transport to facilitating safe and scalable storage. The efficiency of these compression systems is a central economic driver, as every kilowatt-hour lost to inefficiency raises the cost of delivered hydrogen and reduces project profitability.
Addressing these demands calls for application-specific expertise. Burckhardt Compression delivers this across every link in the value chain, offering tailored compressor solutions that support the energy transition.
To learn more, visit our webpage below, where we showcase key applications in which our expertise and engineered solutions support efficient, reliable, and scalable hydrogen mobility and energy systems.
What’s next in the series
In the final article of this series, we close the loop by focusing on the end-use applications that drive the hydrogen economy. From steel manufacturing and shipping to hydrogen refueling stations and grid balancing, we explore why hydrogen is the chosen solution for hard-to-abate sectors — and what it takes to deliver it reliably.